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Recently, a few studies specifically investigated the possible impact of TR feeding on GM composition.
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It is well-known that GM composition varies in response to isocaloric diets differing in macronutrient composition, as well as to diets with identical macronutrient composition differing in caloric content 20. Furthermore, TR was shown to reduce body fat mass 16, to decrease plasma levels of triglycerides and low-density lipoproteins 6, 17, and to increase lifespan in mice 18.ĭiet is a key factor influencing gut microbiota (GM) composition and functions, which in turn affect host health 19. An increasing number of studies have indicated that TR can reproduce at least some of the effects associated with CR 14, including stimulation of autophagy, increased mitochondrial respiratory efficiency, modulation of reactive oxygen species, and changes in the profile of inflammatory cytokines 15. TR feeding, unlike CR, can be well tolerated by humans for long periods, also at repeated intervals, as noted in the Islamic fasting during the month of Ramadan 13. In fact, after a short training period (usually lasting less than one week) under controlled experimental conditions, animals exposed to TR feeding are able to eat ≥90% of the food ration consumed by AL-fed controls 12. It is important to note that during the TR feeding regimen the quality and quantity of nutrients is comparable to that of ad libitum (AL) controls.
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The benefits of this feeding regimen appear to be proportional to fasting duration 6.
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A basic rationale of this dietary regimen is that the feeding time period should be aligned with internal circadian rhythms, in order to synchronize with the active phase of animal or human metabolism 10, 11. In the TR feeding protocol, food consumption is not randomly distributed across the 24 h, but it is limited to a daily interval of 3–4 7, 7–9 8, or 10–12 h 9, allowing daily fasting duration greater than 12 h. IF has been recently categorized in whole-day fasting, every other day fasting, and time-restricted (TR) feeding 6. IF regimens were studied both in human subjects and animal models and proved to ameliorate a variety of pathological conditions, including obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, fertility problems, liver impairment, and neurodegenerative diseases 4, 5. However, the applicability of the CR regimen is limited, due to the difficulties to be maintained over a long time and to be used in the management of chronic conditions 3.Īn alternative dietary approach, that is being actively explored for its potential benefits, is intermittent fasting (IF). Studies in animals and humans have repeatedly reported that CR leads to an extension of both lifespan and healthspan 1, 2. CR consists in a reduction of total daily calories intake without changing the macronutrient composition nor causing malnutrition. Among dietary interventions, caloric restriction (CR) has been most intensely investigated. Lifestyle interventions, including changes in diet and increased exercise, result in many health benefits able to prevent (and enhance treatment of) various metabolic diseases.